Europe’s renewable freshwater: in majority of regions, up to half appropriated by humans

A first estimate of water demand in Europe amounts to a volume between roughly 140 and 200 billion m³ per year, with energy and agriculture being the main sectors responsible for water appropriation. The results show a wide variation between the freshwater appropriated in northern and southern Europe, projected to worsen with global warming.

By identifying where freshwater pressure is already high and which sectors drive it, the analysis provides evidence to support the EU Water Resilience Strategy, reinforcing the importance of demand management, efficiency-first approaches and better data on water use across Europe.

Freshwater pressure is widespread

Human activities already appropriate between 10% and 50% of available freshwater in many European river basins. In some southern regions, water appropriation even exceeds this threshold.

The assessment maps freshwater appropriation across European basins by comparing water demand from key economic sectors with renewable water availability. Results show a strongly uneven geographical pattern.

Northern Europe generally faces lower pressure, while southern and Mediterranean basins experience systematically higher levels of appropriation. Central Europe often shows intermediate situations, where multiple sectors contribute to water demand without a single dominant driver.

Estimated appropriation of naturally available resources.
Source: JRC elaboration.

Irrigation is the main driver of appropriation

Across Europe, irrigation consistently emerges as the largest contributor to freshwater appropriation, particularly in already stressed river basins. Livestock water demand frequently coincides with irrigation, amplifying local pressure.

Energy production is also appropriating large volumes of water. Industry and public water supply account for significant volumes but are often located in river basins with higher natural availability. The analysis also considers the Representative concentration Pathways (RP) 4.5 and 8.5, indicative of mitigated and unmitigated climate change respectively.

Sectorial water resources appropriation: black - industry, orange - energy, green - irrigation, yellow - livestock, blue - public water supply.
Source: JRC elaboration.

Climate change will widen regional contrasts

Climate projections indicate that freshwater water availability is likely to decline further in southern Europe, increasing freshwater appropriation, especially for irrigation and livestock.
In contrast, parts of northern Europe may experience stable or increasing average availability, further widening regional differences.

These trends suggest that climate change will sharpen existing vulnerabilities, making anticipatory action increasingly important.

Sectorial contributions to appropriation and changes with climate scenarios.
Source: JRC elaboration.

Reuse and efficiency to support water resilience

The study also highlights the potential of water reuse to reduce freshwater appropriation. Reusing treated urban wastewater for agricultural irrigation emerges as the most immediately viable option, with the potential to offset a meaningful share of irrigation demand in several regions. This could reduce water appropriation by 5% to 20% under current conditions.

Industrial waters may be more difficult to reuse due to water quality concerns and need to be assessed separately. Energy water use is most often less consumptive, and water used for cooling is de facto already indirectly available for reuse in many cases.

Broader cross-sector reuse opportunities also exist and merit further assessment, particularly where water quality constraints can be managed.

Background

This assessment contributes to the JRC’s ongoing work to develop a consistent European water balance. At the same time, it shows that important uncertainties remain in water demand estimates, and that demand patterns are evolving across sectors. Improving the evidence base on water demand will therefore be essential to support resilient water management and informed policy decisions in the years ahead.